Glossary

DHA, ALA, MUFA...  

The world of Omega-3 is inhabited by acronyms and complicated scientific terms inaccessible to most people. 

So we thought we would create a glossary that would translate this complex language into words you can easily understand and remember. Here, then, is your gateway to the world of Omega-3s. 

Cultivate your curiosity. Feed your well-being. 

Fatty acids.
Let's start with the basics. Fatty acids are compounds consisting of a carbon chain formed by carbon atoms (up to 30, usually between 14 and 22) to which hydrogen and oxygen atoms are bonded.

We can divide them into 3 categories: 

• Saturated fatty acids (SFA): solids at room temperature. They are characterized by a linear shape that allows them to form compact structures

• Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA): liquid, but ready to solidify when the thermometer drops. Their carbon chain is more flexible because it contains a double bond. The presence of the double bond generates a folding that causes the molecule to occupy more space. For this reason, the structures formed are less compact. 

• Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs): always liquid, even in the freezer! Their chain contains more double legami, consequently they form even less compact structures than MUFAs.

These are the main components of triglycerides and phospholipids. 

The degree of unsaturation (that is, the presence, between two carbon atoms, of double bonds) is not just a chemical curiosity: this distinction is of great interest to those of us who care about your well-being. Anumo of saturated fats, in fact, is associated with high levels of cholesterol, precisely because of their ability to form compact structures. Whereas, in contrast, eating polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as those found in oils obtained from fish, lowers cholesterol levels.

Essential fatty acids.
Fundamentals. Here's what they are, in a nutshell. These are polyunsaturated fatty acids that play a very important role in your well-being.

These are divided into 2 main categories: Omega-3 and Omega-6. The numbers 3 and 6 are not random, but refer to the position of the first double bond in the carbon chain, counting from the end of the molecule. The term "omega," on the other hand, comes from the last letter of the Greek alphabet and is used in science to define an end. 

Your body can synthesize many types of fats from basic elements, such as glucose and amino acids. This process, called "de novo" synthesis, does not occur, however, in the case of essential fatty acids, which cannot be produced by our bodies and must, therefore, be introduced through diet or supplementation.

Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs).
Flexibility. This is a key word when we talk about monounsaturated fatty acids.

Their carbon chain contains a double bond between two carbon atoms that is not saturated with hydrogen atoms. Hence the term "unsaturated." This particular configuration gives MUFAs a very interesting characteristic: flexibility. In fact, the presence of the double bond allows the chain to deform more freely in space. 

A distinguishing characteristic of MUFAs is their behavior in response to temperature: at room temperature they are in liquid form, as temperatures drop they tend to solidify. Think of how olive oil (which contains oleic acid, monounsaturated) behaves: it is liquid at room temperature, tends to solidify in the freezer. 

Omega-3 fatty acids
Let's get to our big players: omega-3s, a family of polyunsaturated fatty acids that abounds in fish oils. Their unique structure, with the first double bond at the third carbon atom, makes them invaluable to our well-being because:

• They make cell membranes more fluid, allowing vital exchanges and effective intercellular communication. 

• They control inflammatory reactions. 

• They help the body fight external aggression. 

• They keep the blood fluid, preventing the formation of clots. 

EPA, DHA and ALA are the main members of this family.  

Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA)
Imagine a seed from which a lush forest springs: lo and behold, ALA is the seed for long-chain Omega-3s.

This essential fatty acid, mainly of plant origin, is found in some algae, green legumes and seeds such as flaxseed. Once introduced into our bodies, ALA is transformed into EPA and DHA, two valuable long-chain fatty acids - a conversion that is far from simple and not always efficient.

Chemically, its carbon chain contains 18 carbon atoms and 3 double bonds: C18:3n-3. The value immediately following C indicates the number of carbon atoms in the essential fatty acid, while the value following the colon indicates how many double bonds are in the molecule.

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
Eicosapentaenoic acid results from a conversion: ALA is partially transformed into EPA, ready to go into action with more direct and powerful effects. EPA is in fact the precursor of a class of molecules (the 3-series eicosanoids) involved in fighting infection, inflammation and cancer cells.

Looking closely at its "molecular anatomy," we see that it it contains 20 carbon atoms and 5 double bonds (C20:5n-3).

Studies reveal that the efficiency of EPA synthesis from ALA is actually very low: only 5-10% of ALA is converted into EPA. That's why, if you really want to benefit from the full powers of eicosapentaenoic acid, it's best to take it already processed, without letting your body synthesize it. 

But the game of conversion and synthesis does not end there: when EPA is abundant, it is in turn partially transformed into DHA, docosahexaenoic acid. EPA and DHA are both naturally occurring in fish oil. 

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
Extraordinary. We call it such because this Omega-3 fatty acid is involved in the lipid composition of cell membranes, especially in lipids in the brain, sperm and retina. And in infants it plays an even more crucial role since, when present in abundance in breast milk, it aids brain development.

Its chemical formula is C22:6n-3. Thus, the carbon chain contains 22 carbon atoms and 6 double bonds. 

DHA arises from a series of transformations that have EPA as the starting point. The interesting thing is that, using the same enzymes that created it, DHA can transform back into EPA. The process, however, is complicated and inefficient. For this reason, dietary supplementation of DHA alone (without EPA) does not have as powerful an effect as EPA supplementation.

Recall that our bodies in fact need both of these omega-3 fatty acids to maintain itself in a state of well-being: while DHA is involved in cell structure, EPA has a more direct and targeted action on the balance of physiological reactions.

Omega-6 fatty acids
They are essential, just like Omega-3s, but have a different role.

Omega-6 fatty acids are essential for structuring cell membranes and affect the balance of physiological reactions in the body. Not only that, they are also the precursors of molecules that promote inflammatory reactions (the pro-inflammatory eicosanoids). These reactions are important for the proper functioning of our body, provided that the presence of Omega-6 is balanced by Omega-3 fatty acids (especially EPA, which has a stabilizing function).

In case of imbalance, in fact, one can go into excessive inflammatory reactions (such as arthritis) or even give rise to some autoimmune diseases-the immune system fights against the body by producing antibodies against normal tissues. 

The key to optimal health therefore lies in the right balance between these two groups of fatty acids.  

The 3 major omega-6 fatty acids are linoleic acid (LA), gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), and arachidonic acid (AA). 

Linoleic acid (LA)
Think of a drop of oil: lo and behold, there's a good chance it contains a good dose of LA.

Linoleic acid, the precursor to long-chain omega-6 fatty acids, is found in most vegetable oils (it is not present in olive oil, flaxseed oil, and canola oil) and abounds in corn.

Under the microscope, it appears as a carbon chain containing 18 carbon atoms and 2 double bonds (C18:2).

Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA)
We are in front of the result of the enzymatic transformation of linoleic acid: in fact, our body transforms LA into GLA, an acid with well-known properties therapeutic and nutritional.

GLA is found in several plant sources (such as black currants) and is available as a dietary supplement in oil form, such as primrose or borage oil. 

The structure of GLA is similar to that of LA, but with an extra double bond: 18 carbon atoms and 3 double bonds (C18:3). 

Arachidonic acid (AA)
It is the most abundant essential fatty acid in our bodies. Its structure? 20 carbon atoms and 4 double bonds.

It is derived from LA and GLA found in food, and is abundant in animal phospholipids. For commercial purposes, it is extracted from liver lipids, but it is also found in some ferns and can be produced by fermentation of particular microorganisms.  

But the aspect that interests us most here is its role, which is fundamental, in the structure of cell membranes, particularly that of neurons in the brain. 

AA is also the starting point for the production of series 2, substances involved in the body's inflammatory response: prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes. These compounds act as short-lived local hormones (autocrine hormones) capable of affecting, very rapidly, neighboring cells.

In fact, part of the therapeutic activity of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g., aspirin) is attributed to the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis and consequently eicosanoid metabolism.    

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs).
Imagine a carbon chain with many carbon-carbon double bonds unsaturated by hydrogen atoms. Lo and behold, this is the structure of PUFAs. And it is because of this structure that these fatty acids are so flexible and stay liquid even at low temperatures. Properties that make them unique in the world of fats.

Indeed, this flexibility is crucial for cell membranes: it allows them to function optimally. 

Saturated fatty acids (SFAs)
Now imagine a carbon chain in which each link is surrounded (saturated) by hydrogen atoms: this structure makes SFAs particularly rigid. And this rigidity is the reason fats like butter are solid at room temperature.

This structure has an effect on cell membranes, as it makes communication and exchange more difficult: it is as if cells are talking through a thick wall instead of a thin curtain. A condition that is not conducive to maintaining a good physiological balance. 

Cholesterol
In the blood, in the muscles, in the liver, in the brain, etc. Cholesterol, part of the lipid family, is found almost everywhere.

It becomes part of the structure of many membranes and influences their flexibility. This, perhaps, is well known. Less well known, however, is its role as a synthetic precursor of very important hormones, such as sex hormones, adrenaline, and cortisol.

Where does cholesterol come from? It is produced in our bodies, particularly in the liver, and also comes from food (from meats, dairy products, seafood and fish). 

As always, the key to wellness is balance: the right amount of cholesterol is necessary for maintaining good health, while an excess could become harmful. 

Dioxins
Dangerous, persistent, able to infiltrate anywhere.

Dioxins are chemical compounds consisting of 4 carbon and 2 oxygen atoms, with 2 double bonds forming a ring.  

Let's clarify right away: the term "dioxin" is misused to refer to the toxic compound TCDD (whose toxicity is much higher than cyanide and strychnine). In nonlethal doses, it can cause a disfiguring skin disease called chloracne.

Dioxins proper, on the other hand, are polluting industrial byproducts that persist in the environment for a long time and, due to their solubility in fats, can enter the food chain (they accumulate, for example, in fish tissue). Studies have shown that. prolonged exposure to this substance (e.g., if contaminated fish is regularly consumed) can cause damage to the nervous system, weaken the immune system, and increase the incidence of abortions.

Not only that, dioxin has been found to be teratogenic, that is, capable of causing fetal malformations in small animals and, albeit less frequently, also in children. For all these reasons, it has been classified as a probable carcinogen (in the laboratory, an increased incidence of liver and lung cancer has been observed).

A dramatic example of the impact of dioxin is the Seveso accident. In 1976, the explosion of a chemical plant caused the release of an estimated 22 to 132 tons of dioxin into the atmosphere. The toxic cloud caused the death of many animals and many people were subjected to dermatitis. Studies conducted years later also revealed long-term effects, such as problems in the development of teeth in children and a weakened immune system. 

Eicosanoids
Did you know that éikosi, in Greek, means 20?
Eicosanoids are molecules composed of 20 carbon atoms (from which they get their name) that are derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids, mainly arachidonic acid.

These molecules are responsible for communication between cells and act as locally acting hormones; therefore, they control inflammatory processes in our body. 

The most studied eicosanoids are undoubtedly the prostaglandins. There are more than 30 types, divided into 3 families: PG1 and PG2 are derived from Omega-6 fats (the progenitor of which is linoleic acid), PG3 from Omega-3 fats (the progenitor of which is linolenic acid). 

The most valuable prostaglandins, those that have the greatest effect on health, are PGE1 and PGE2. The former (especially PGE1) perform the following functions: 

• They lower blood pressure, promote sodium removal, and fight water retention; 

• protect against the occurrence of thrombi and heart attacks; 

• They inhibit the inflammatory response; 

• They improve insulin function and keep blood sugar steady; 

• They regulate calcium metabolism; 

• They improve the functioning of the nervous and immune systems. 

Le PG2 on the other hand, have a dual nature, good and bad: PGE2 can cause water retention, platelet aggregation, inflammation, and increased pressure, while PGI2 is the "good sister" that acts similarly to PGE1.

Interestingly, evolution has influenced the role of these substances. When man was still a hunter, surely eicosanoids such as PGE2 could save him in difficult situations (for example, by helping him heal wounds). Today, that we live in an age of affluence and sedentariness, they may become, on the contrary, enemy substances.

Ester
When an acid and an alcohol react, a chemical compound called an ester is obtained. The ester world is divided into ethyl esters and glyceryl esters: the former consisting of ethanol, the latter of glycerol.

The naming of these compounds follows a very simple rule: you take the name of the acid and change the ending to "ato." And so acetic acid becomes, for example, ethyl acetate.  

The most fascinating part of these compounds lies in their scent, which is reminiscent of fruit. This is why they are used to create synthetic flavorings. 

Phospholipids 

Phosphorus. It is the main component of these lipids formed by a carbon chain that contains, precisely, one or more phosphorus atoms.

Imagine phospholipids as the bricks that build the walls of your cells: these lipids are in fact essential constituents of cell membranes. 

Lipids
They are insoluble in the aqueous environment of the cell (preferring organic solvents such as ether or benzole), are lighter than water and have a low melting point.

Let's talk about lipids, a heterogeneous group of compounds that share these characteristics. The main one is their low solubility in water, which makes them perfect for performing one of their most important biological functions: forming the structural element of the membranes that surround cells and separate them into various compartments. 

In order, we can divide the large family of lipids into two main categories: 

• Simple lipids: formed exclusively of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. An example? Triglycerides.

• Complex lipids: contain not only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but also nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur. An example? Phospholipids.

Where do these valuable molecular builders come from? We find them in both food products of animal origin (butter, dairy products, meats) and those of plant origin (oils, nuts, olives). 

Mercury
A shining silvery sphere, liquid at room temperature, elusive, extremely pliable. We are talking about mercury (Hg), a metal that in nature is found in droplet form adhering to cinnabar or in ore.

Versatile as few others, it lends itself to a thousand uses-from creating explosives to making barometers. Yet it is a toxic metal and a pollutant that slips, silently, into the food chain: traces of mercury are found in most fish and shellfish.

In water, mercury turns into methylmercury, a potent neurotoxin. When we eat contaminated fish, methylmercury accumulates in the bloodstream and can cause serious damage, such as oxidation of cholesterol and increased risk of heart attack in predisposed individuals. In addition, the substance lingers in tissues and, in pregnant women, can pass to the fetus, potentially affecting the baby's learning ability and memory.

An interesting study conducted in eight European countries and Israel highlighted the relationship between the levels of mercury found in toenails, DHA found in adipose tissue, and the risk of myocardial infarction. They analyzed 684 men who had been given a first diagnosis of myocardial infarction, and another 724 men who constituted the control group.

The results speak for themselves: the level of mercury detected in the body is directly related to the risk of experiencing a heart attack. A high mercury level may therefore undermine the cardioprotective effect of fish consumption.

Polychlorobenzenes
Heat exchangers in transformers, plasticizers for making polystyrene objects, printing inks, additives for pesticides, fixing agents in microscopes, flame retardants.

There are indeed numerous uses of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). We are talking about a class of organic compounds consisting of chlorine atoms (1 to 10) bonded to 2 benzenes. Benzene (C6H6) is a hydrocarbon consisting of 6 carbon and 6 hydrogen atoms each placed at the apex of a regular hexagon, joined by a simple bond alternating with a double bond.

Precisely because of their stability, PCBs are incredibly resilient and are degraded very slowly. Moreover, because they are not soluble in water, they move up the food chain until they reach us. 

Just think that a fish swimming in contaminated water has levels of PCBs 100 to 100,000 times higher than in the water itself. In fact, fish are real sponges that absorb all the substances in the sea: they concentrate in their fatty tissues fatty acids derived from algae (long-chain Omega-3 EPA and DHA) but also toxic substances such as mercury, PCBs and dioxins.  

Health effects? Experimental evidence shows that prolonged exposure to high levels of PCBs can cause liver, skin barrier, kidney, stomach and thyroid damage in people. 

A group of researchers also looked at the health of children born to women who had regularly fed on polychlorobenzene-contaminated fish from Lake Michigan. Compared with the control group, these children were 3 times more likely to have lower than average IQs, and 2 times more likely to have learning and reading difficulties. 

Triglycerides
Do you know how much lipid a mammal can contain? Between 5 and 25 percent, or more, of its body weight. More than 90% of these lipids are fats.

In living things fatty acids are in fact stored mainly in the form of triglycerides, i.e., fats. The latter are composed of one molecule of glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty acids that can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated.

But where are these fats stored? In specialized cells called adipocytes (almost their entire volume is filled with a single drop of fat). These cells make up the adipose tissue of animals, an extremely important fat reservoir for energy production, heat and thermal insulation.